Editorial Style Guide

If the Columbia | SIPA wordmark — which includes the School’s full name, School of International and Public Affairs — is prominently featured in a print publication or a website, it is not necessary to spell out the School’s full name in running text. Columbia SIPA or just SIPA is an acceptable first reference in such cases. (In running text, the vertical bar, or “pipe,” featured in the wordmark may be omitted.)

Where there is no identifying wordmark or heading, identify SIPA upon first reference as Columbia University School of International and Public Affairs or Columbia’s School of International and Public Affairs (not School of International and Public Affairs at Columbia University).

The first reference will very often be followed by SIPA in parentheses:

• School of International and Public Affairs (SIPA)

Capitalize School when used alone to refer to SIPA (but it’s preferable to use SIPA).

• Daniel Björkegren came to the School after teaching at Brown University for several years.

Spell out all but the most familiar abbreviated terms on first reference.

An abbreviation often follows immediately in parentheses but may be introduced in other ways: 

• The Institute of Latin American Studies (ILAS) is the center for Latin America policy development and research at Columbia University.
• The Office of Student Affairs is a valuable resource. Each fall, OSA provides …
• MPA-EPM (MPA Program in Economic Policy Management) is a 14-month program that educates future leaders of central banks, among others.

This rule applies equally to abbreviations inside and outside SIPA. (See the Name of the School entry in this section for guidelines on using the SIPA abbreviation.) 

Degree Abbreviations

MIA/MPA Concentrations Abbreviations

Centers and Institutes Abbreviations

View a list of the SIPA Centers and Institutes and their abbreviations. →

Commonly Used Department Abbreviations

Other Commonly Used SIPA Abbreviations

Commonly Used Non-SIPA Abbreviations

SIPA alumni are identified by degree and graduation year:

Constance Hunter MIA ’94
William Wechsler MPA ’93
Aly Sanoh PhD ’12

Note that there is a space between the degree and the graduation year.

Image

Also, use an apostrophe, or single closing/single right quotation mark, not a single opening/single left quote mark. An enlarged example of the correct symbol is at left. 

View keyboard shortcuts for inserting an apostrophe on Windows and Mac →

View a list of the abbreviations for SIPA degrees →

Alumni of the International Fellows programs are identified as such with the abbreviation IF and the year in addition to their degree credential:

Roger Baumann IF ’84, MIA ’85

Note that there is a comma and a space between multiple credentials and that no comma is used after the second credential.

Otherwise, to identify a student or graduate by program, as opposed to degree, do so in prose.

SIPA alumni who are also alumni of another Columbia school are identified as such with the year followed by the school abbreviation (not the degree abbreviation) without a space them:

Jeffrey Golden IF ’78, ’78LAW
Claire Shipman ’86CC, MIA ’94

List the credentials in chronological order, and if the years are the same, list the SIPA credential first.

View a list of the abbreviations for Columbia schools →

Voice is character. It describes how the institution feels and acts, and more importantly, it personifies our relationship with our audiences online. Voice is consistent across the platform. It’s who we are.

Tone is mood. It’s how we sound, and it’s constructed through these elements of style: vocabulary variations, rhythm, mood, and structure. Just as our tone of voice changes based on the circumstance and environment, your tone might shift a little to suit the content you’re creating or the platform on which you’re communicating.

Our Voice

We speak in the voice of a person who’s defined by the SIPA experience: someone with a real sense of conviction and purpose, drive and ambition — a person for whom feelings of community and inclusivity are second nature.

We are measured and forthright in all that we say and do. We are grounded in reality but always striving for greatness. We can get serious, but we’re never stuffy. Our confidence is commanding and powerful, but never boastful. We share our knowledge and information clearly and effectively. 

Our Tone

Our tone is direct yet quite friendly, rigorous but human, opinionated but not loud, personable but not casual, nuanced yet precise, empathetic yet rational, welcoming and thoughtful.

Notes on Inclusivity

Our voice and tone reflect diversity and inclusion across nationality, race, gender, sexual identity, class, etc., and relative freedom from stratification. 

“You” are a person who wants to learn about SIPA. We don’t know your background. Avoid making assumptions. 

“We” are SIPA. In most cases “we” and “our" is not the institution, but all of us — the big family “you” may join. In some cases, “we” also connects SIPA to partners. 

Our community is inclusive of people who are not native English speakers. Think twice before using idiomatic language and cultural references, and only use them where they add value to the writing.

About the School of International and Public Affairs: For more than 75 years, SIPA has been educating professionals who work in public, private, and nonprofit organizations to make a difference in the world. Through rigorous social science research and hands-on practice, SIPA’s graduates and faculty strive to improve social services, advocate for human rights, strengthen markets, protect the environment, and secure peace, in their home communities and around the world. For more information, please visit sipa.columbia.edu.

About Columbia University: A leading academic and research university, Columbia continually seeks to advance the frontiers of knowledge and to foster a campus community deeply engaged in understanding and addressing the complex global issues of our time. Columbia’s extensive public service initiatives, cultural collaborations, and community partnerships help define the University’s underlying values and mission to educate students to be both leading scholars and informed, engaged citizens. Founded in 1754 as King’s College, Columbia University in the City of New York is the fifth oldest institution of higher learning in the United States.

Include (IGP) after Institute of Global Politics when first mentioning the institute, even when it is the only mention in the story. 

• The Institute of Global Politics (IGP) hosted a side event at the Munich Security Conference on February 16 …

When using the initialism IGP alone, do not use the before it.

• In the months that followed, IGP brought people together across geographic and political divides, …

   

IGP’s Distinguished Fellows

Use Carnegie Distinguished Fellow when first mentioning an IGP fellow and Inaugural Carnegie Distinguished Fellow when first mentioning a member of the first cohort of IGP fellows in 2023–2024.

• Kim Ghattas, IGP Carnegie Distinguished Fellow, Emmy Award–winning journalist, and author, convened a skills workshop …
• Ressa served as an Inaugural Carnegie Distinguished Fellow at the School’s Institute of Global Politics (IGP) in 2023–24.

View this academic year’s Carnegie Distinguished Fellows →

View the Inaugural Carnegie Distinguished Fellows (2023–24) →

Use Ambassador when first mentioning an IGP Carnegie Distinguished Fellow who is a former ambassador.

• The event featured a keynote address by Ambassador John J. Sullivan, who served as US ambassador to the Russian Federation …

IGP’s Faculty Advisory Board and Affiliated Faculty

When a SIPA faculty member is also a member of the IGP Faculty Advisory Board or IGP’s affiliated faculty, mention that among their academic credentials:

•  … says Michael A. Nutter, former mayor of Philadelphia and SIPA’s David N. Dinkins Professor of Professional Practice in Urban and Public Affairs, who also sits on the IGP Faculty Advisory Board.
• Nuland also directs SIPA’s International Fellows Program and is a member of IGP’s affiliated faculty.

View the faculty advisory board members →

View the affiliated faculty members →

Use Secretary Hillary Rodham Clinton when first mentioning the chair of the IGP Faculty Advisory Board and Clinton in subsequent references within the same story.

• Secretary Hillary Rodham Clinton, professor of international and public affairs and IGP Faculty Advisory Board chair, moderated the panel, …

Boilerplate for IGP News

About the Institute of Global Politics (IGP): The Institute of Global Politics (IGP) is a new hub to connect the world’s leading policymakers, political leaders, practitioners, and scholars. Housed at Columbia’s School of International and Public Affairs (SIPA), IGP produces cutting-edge research with real-world policymaking to advance innovative, evidence-based solutions to our most pressing global challenges. For more information, please visit igp.sipa.columbia.edu.

About Columbia University’s School of International and Public Affairs: For more than 75 years, SIPA has been educating professionals who work in public, private, and nonprofit organizations to make a difference in the world. Through rigorous social science research and hands-on practice, SIPA’s graduates and faculty strive to improve social services, advocate for human rights, strengthen markets, protect the environment, and secure peace, in their home communities and around the world. For more information, please visit sipa.columbia.edu.

Capitalize School when used alone to refer to SIPA (but it’s preferable to just use SIPA) and University when used alone to refer to Columbia University.

• Before coming to the School, Professor Björkegren taught at a university in Providence, Rhode Island.

When cited in full, capitalize an organization’s name. In subsequent references, the noun may be capped or not, depending on the clarity of the context. Preferred style is lowercase.

• Harriman Institute. Current research at the institute focuses on …

Capitalize the full names of departments.

Institute of Global Politics (IGP): See the SIPA-Specific Issues section.

In running text, capitalize course titles when given exactly:

• Jean-Marie Guéhenno has returned to SIPA and will teach Peace Operations in Fragile States this fall.

Lowercase informal references:

• Many SIPA students look back fondly on their courses in economics.

Lowercase fields of study unless they are part of a title or department name, or where capitalization is necessary for clarity of meaning:

• She chose human rights as her area of focus …

Lowercase the names of degrees:

• a master’s degree, a doctoral degree; master of international affairs, master of public administration 

Note that in the full name of the degree, master rather than master’s is used, and degree is not used.

General Rule

Capitalize professional titles like dean, director, professor, and so on preceding a name, but lowercase them following a name (except for an named position) or when they stand alone:

• Dean Keren Yarhi-Milo; Keren Yarhi-Milo, dean of SIPA; Dean Yarhi-Milo; the dean
• Interim President Katrina Armstrong; Katrina Armstrong, interim president of Columbia University; Interim President Armstrong; the interim president
• Professor of International and Public Affairs Elazar Barkan; Elazar Barkan, professor of international and public affairs; Professor Barkan; the professor
• Thomas Christensen, James T. Shotwell Professor of International Relations; Professor Christensen; the professor
• The audience gave its loudest applause to the professor who …
• Kathy Hochul, governor of New York (or Governor Kathy Hochul of New York); Governor Hochul; the governor
• Johanna Hill MIA ’00, deputy director-general of the World Trade Organization (or Deputy Director-General Johanna Hill MIA ’00 of the World Trade Organization); Deputy Director-General Hill; the deputy director-general
• Rema Serafi BC ’91, MIA ’95, vice chair–tax at KPMG [Note that titles of persons holding offices such as this are rarely used before the name as part of a name.]
• Senthil Nathan MPA ’18, CEO of Fairtrade Australia and New Zealand [Note that CEO may be used for the first mention.]

Capitalize such titles when used as part of a ceremonial or other formal identification:

• Professor Caroline Flammer has been named Vice Dean for Research and Faculty Affairs.

When referring to faculty and administrators in running text, do not include academic degrees or courtesy titles.

Named Professorships

When a named professorship beginning with a person’s name follows the current or emeritus occupant’s name in running text, use the article the before the named professorship to prevent misreading:

• Thomas Christensen, the James T. Shotwell Professor of International Relations, is codirector of the Columbia-Harvard China and the World program. 

Titles Used in Apposition

Unless it is separated from the name by a comma, capitalize a formal title used in apposition to a name when it precedes the name:

• German Chancellor Olaf Scholz
• UN Secretary-General António Guterres
• the Argentinian-born Pope Francis
• former President Carter
• former Presidents Reagan and Ford
• then–Secretary of State John Kerry (with an en dash)

 but

• a meeting with the German chancellor, Olaf Scholz
• the historian Kevin M. Kruse or historian Kevin M. Kruse (not a formal title)

Titles of works mentioned in text are usually capitalized in headline style, also called title case:

1. Capitalize the first and last words in titles and subtitles and all other major words (nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and some conjunctions — but see rule 4).
2. Lowercase the articles the, a, and an.
3. Lowercase prepositions of fewer than five letters, except when they are used adverbially or adjectivally (up in Look Up, down in Turn Down, on in The On Button, to in Come To, etc.). Note that the five-letter rule includes abbreviations (e.g., Versus would be capitalized, but vs. would not be).
4. Lowercase the common coordinating conjunctions and, but, for, or, and nor.
5. Lowercase to not only as a preposition (rule 3) but also as part of an infinitive (to Run, to Hide, etc.), and lowercase as.
6. Lowercase the part of a proper name that would be lowercased in text, such as de or von.
7. In a hyphenated compound, always capitalize the first element. The second element is usually capped also, unless it is an article, preposition of fewer than five letters, or coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, or, nor):
   1. Technology in 18th-Century Mexico
   2. Twenty-Seventh Birthday

Italics Versus Quotation Marks for Titles

Italicize titles of books; periodicals; plays; pamphlets; published reports; movies and movie series; television, radio, and podcast programs and series; online publications, news websites, and blogs; and paintings, drawings, photographs, statues, and other works of art.

Use roman type and quotation marks for titles of articles; chapters; lectures; theses and dissertations; single episodes in a television, radio, or podcast series; names of networks, channels, and streaming services; video games; poems; songs; and titled sections, pages, and special features on a website (but for titles of websites, use roman type and title case without quotation marks).

Use neither italics nor quotation marks for titles of apps, courses, lecture series, and websites.

Conferences: For the name or title of a conference, use title case and quotation marks; for the subject or topic of a conference, use lowercase and no quotation marks.

Project names: For a project name that resembles or sounds like the name or title of a study or research paper, use roman type and quotation marks; for a project name that resembles or sounds like the name of a venture or program, use roman type without quotation marks.

An Initial “The” in Periodical Titles

When newspapers and other periodicals are used in running text, capitalize and italicize an initial The that is considered part of the official title along with the title of the publication:

• I prefer the paper editions of The Washington Post and The New York Times.
• I read the Los Angeles Times during the week and the Chicago Tribune on Sundays.
• She reads the Journal of Labor Economics at work and The American Naturalist at  home.

In running text, use the full company name as it appears in the copyright or “About Us” statement on the corporate website. But elements such as Inc., & Co., and LLC may be omitted unless relevant to the context.

• Johnson & Johnson was founded in 1886.
• JPMorgan Chase operates in more than 60 countries.
• AT&T Corporation was once known as the American Telephone and Telegraph Company.

CMOS 8.70 advises, “Corporate names that appear in all lowercase in logotype and other promotional settings can often be capitalized in the usual way. … Spellings that begin lowercase but include a capital letter are usually appropriate for running text, even at the beginning of a sentence, as are names with additional internal capitals … . A preference for all uppercase should be respected. If a company appears to prefer all lowercase, even in running text, an initial capital can be applied as a matter of editorial expediency.”

• Adidas (not adidas)
• Amazon (not amazon)
• Intel (not intel)

 but

•  GlaxoSmithKline
• HarperCollins
• the RAND Corporation
• eBay

• October 1, 2016, was the day … (not October 1st, 2016)
• On Monday, September 2, the professor …
• You are invited … on April 25, 2024, at 5 p.m.

When using only a month and year, do not use a comma to separate them:

• The visiting scholars are expected in September 2025.

Lowercase the four seasons (except when used to denote an issue of a journal):

• The students will graduate in spring 2025.

Write 2024–2025 or 2024–25 for the academic year and similar ranges of years (note the en dash to denote a range).

In times of day, eliminate unnecessary numerals, and use lowercase and periods in a.m. and p.m. (Note that the abbreviations a.m. and p.m. should not be used with morning, afternoon, evening, night, or o’clock.)

• 7–9 p.m. (not 7:00–9:00 p.m.)

However, maintain a consistent number of digits within a sentence:

• The event lasted from 10:30 a.m. to 3:00 p.m.

For clarity, use noon and midnight rather than 12 p.m. and 12 a.m.

Style email and web addresses in roman type:

• [email protected]
• sipa.columbia.edu/admissions

For URLs in display text or running text, it is not necessary to include http:// or www.; simply use sipa.columbia.edu/admissions or sipa.columbia.edu/alumni.

Capitalize URL (an acronym for Uniform Resource Locator).

Lowercase internet, the web, webpage, and homepage (exceptions to Merriam-Webster), but capitalize World Wide Web.

Other digital terms (the first two are exceptions to Merriam-Webster):

• log in (used as a verb, as in “Please log in here.”)
• login (used as a noun, as in “Forgot your login or password?”)
• online

In running text, generally avoid breaking long URLs and email addresses over two lines. Whenever it is necessary to break a URL, avoid doing so in the middle of a word, and do not add a hyphen. Instead, choose a breaking point at the end of a word and place the next symbol at the beginning of the new line:

• https://www.sipa.columbia.edu/sipa-education/masters-programs
• [email protected]

Italicize the names of online publications:

• SIPA Magazine; Politico; Salon.com; Slate

Style titled sections, pages, or special features on a website in roman type with quotation marks:

• Wikipedia’s “Let It Be” entry

Use the singular they to refer to a nonbinary person or, in some circumstances, someone whose gender is unknown or unimportant:

• They have a certificate in culinary arts. [Note that the singular they takes a plural verb.]
• Somebody forgot their coat.
• Given the chance, anybody would try to improve their life.

Whole numbers followed by hundred, thousand, million, and so forth are either spelled out or expressed as numerals according to the general rule:

• six hundred

• 14 million

Use numerals for all decimal amounts, percentages (but spell out percent: 99 percent), and weights and measures.

Avoid starting a sentence with a number whenever possible. If there is no way to recast the sentence, then spell out the number that begins a sentence. (CMOS 9.5 suggests approaches to recasting such sentences.)

Years are generally expressed as numerals. A year at the beginning of a sentence need not be spelled out, though rewording is usually the better option: 

• 2020 was a good year for clairvoyants.

• or, better,

• The year 2020 was a good one for clairvoyants.

A sentence may also begin with a term that includes a combination of letters and numerals (e.g., 401(k), 3D, and 7-Eleven):

• 3D imagery has come a long way since the stereoscopes of the 19th century.

When numbers above and below nine occur in the same sentence for similar items, for consistency’s sake use numerals for all the numbers:

• At the meeting were 6 EMPA alumni, 100 MPA alumni, and 240 MIA alumni.

However, items in one category may be given as numbers and those in another category spelled out:

• A mixture of buildings — two of 18 stories, five of more than 50, and a dozen of only 3 or 4 — are proposed for the area.

Use numerals to denote centuries later than the ninth.

• The American economy in the 19th century

Use a comma in numbers with four or more digits:

• 1,500 (not 1500)

In times of day and dollar amounts, eliminate unnecessary zeros:

• 8 p.m. (not 8:00 p.m.)
• $60 (not $60.00)

In ranges of time, dates, dollar amounts, or percentages, use an en dash to denote a range:

• noon–3 p.m.

• $25–50

•  75–80 percent

In running text, when using plus as an alternative to more than or over to describe an amount or quantity greater than a round number, use the word -plus (note the hyphen), not the plus sign.

• Alumni from 160-plus countries … (not 160+ countries)

However, the plus sign can be used in display copy — for example, a chart or a graphic.

The letters in ordinal numbers should not appear as superscripts:

• 122nd, not 122^nd

For specific dates, use cardinal numbers, even though they may be pronounced as ordinals:

• October 4, 2022, was a sad day for country music fans.

not 

• October 4th, 2022, …

Decades may be written as the 1980s or the ’80s. Note that no apostrophe is used to form the plural.

In US phone numbers, use hyphens throughout with no spaces. 

• 212-854-8567

For international numbers, use spaces rather than hyphens as separators and include the country code preceded by a plus (which indicates that additional numbers are required). For example, a French number looks like this:

• +33 1 00 00 00 00 (33 is the country code for France, 1 designates the Île-de-France region, and the rest is the usual eight paired digits separated by spaces for French telephone numbers. From the United States, the plus symbol signals the 011 needed to initiate an international call; from many other countries, it’s 00.)

Photo captions in editorial text that are full sentences end with a period. In captions that are not sentences, omit the period, unless a photo credit follows the caption on the same line.

Italicize locators — for example, center, third from right, or L–R — in captions. When a locator is at the beginning of the caption, use a colon styled roman after the locator; when the locator is amid the caption, put it in parentheses and style the parentheses roman.

• Homa Hassan (right) with Secretary of State Antony Blinken and Assistant Secretary Molly Phee outside of the West Wing in September

• L–R: Jason Bordoff, Maria Ressa, Secretary Hillary Rodham Clinton, Dean Keren Yarhi-Milo. Photo by Felicia Goodman [Note that the dash in L–R is an en dash.]

• Students and alumni enjoy the private sector career night in October 2023. Photo by Brandon Vallejo

Italicize photo credits, and use the phrasing “Photo by [photographer’s name]”.

Do not use a period after the photographer’s name:

• Kelsey Chin performs at the 2023 SIPA Leadership Dinner. Photo by Diane Bondareff

When a photo has been provided by a person or organization, use the phrasing “Photo courtesy of [donor’s name]” without a period after the donor’s name.

In running text, spell out street names in full:

• Amsterdam Avenue

• 116th Street

In contexts where a specific governmental body rather than the place is meant, the words state, city, and the like are usually capitalized when used as part of the full name of the body:

• That is a City of New York ordinance.

• The State of California enacted several new laws targeting emissions.

In running text, avoid using ampersands, except in proper names of organizations and companies.

Use an apostrophe for the possessive of singular nouns, including proper nouns, ending in s:

• the virus’s toll

• Kansas’s legislature

• Borges’s library

When the singular form of a noun ending in s is the same as the plural, the possessives of both are formed by the addition of an apostrophe only. 

• politics’ true meaning

• economics’ forerunners

The same rule applies when the name of a place or an organization or a publication (or the last element in the name) is a plural form ending in s, such as the United States, even though the entity is singular. If the result is awkward, consider rewording to avoid the possessive:

• the United States’ role (or, better, the role of the United States)

• Highland Hills’ late mayor

• the National Academy of Sciences’ new policy

For plurals of abbreviations and numerals, do not use an apostrophe before the s:

• CDs

• MBAs

• the depression of the 1930s

• a temperature in the high 50s

For plurals of letters, both lowercase and uppercase, use an apostrophe before the s:

• an acronym spelled with two A’s

• x’s and y’s 

Note that individual letters and combinations of letters are usually italicized: 

• a lowercase n

• a capital W

• The plural is usually formed in English by adding s or es.

• He signed the document with an X.

Exceptions: Roman type is traditionally used in several common expressions, as well as for letters used to denote grades:

• Mind your p’s and q’s!

• dotting the i’s and crossing the t’s

• the three R’s (traditionally capitalized)

• The student finished the semester with three A’s, one B+, and two B’s.

Use a colon to introduce additional information or to convey the sense of “as follows.”

When what follows the colon is not a complete sentence, use lowercase for the first word after a colon, unless it is a proper noun or other term that would normally be capitalized.

When a colon introduces one or more complete sentences, capitalize the first word that follows the colon.

In a series of three or more items joined by a conjunction, use a comma — known as the serial or series comma or the Oxford comma — before the conjunction:

• She posted pictures of her parents, the president, and the vice president.

• I want no ifs, ands, or buts.

When an ampersand is used instead of the word and (as in company names), the serial comma is omitted.

• Winken, Blinken & Nod is a purveyor of nightwear.

Within a sentence, a modifying or identifying element that is preceded by a comma must be followed by a comma:

• The program will run from May 30, 2924, to June 17, 2025.

• Sledding in Duluth, Minnesota, is facilitated by that city’s hills and frigid winters.

Exception: SIPA alumni with more than one Columbia academic credential:

• Roger Baumann IF ’84, MIA ’85 was named … 

• Claire Shipman ’86CC, MIA ’94 has served as …

Do not use a comma between a month and year:

• The visitors are expected in May 2025.

Use a comma after i.e. and e.g.:

Do not use commas with Jr., II, or III:

• The Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. was a renowned civil rights activist.

The adverb too used in the sense of “also” generally need not be preceded by a comma. But when too comes in the middle of the sentence or clause, a comma is more likely to be helpful.

• I had my cake and ate it too.

• She, too, decided against the early showing.

There are three types of dashes.

Hyphens

Hyphens, the shortest dashes, are used in compound words and compound adjectives, such as self-reliant, up-to-date, non-English-speaking. 

Hyphens can prevent misreading, such as re-creation or co-op (as opposed to recreation or coop).

Hyphens can also eliminate ambiguity. For example, the hyphen in much-needed clothing shows that the clothing is greatly needed rather than abundant and needed.

Compound modifiers that are hyphenated before a noun can usually remain open when they follow the noun: a well-read student is well read.

But some compound modifiers are always hyphenated, even after a noun, including all-consuming, cost-effective, dyed-in-the-wool, fat-free, first-rate, high-spirited, ill-advised, old-fashioned, short-lived, and wild-eyed. If the term is not listed here or in CMOS’s hyphenation guide (7.96), check Merriam-Webster.

Most compounds formed with a prefix are spelled as a single word, or closed: coequal, coauthor, cochair, codirector, coeditor, cohost, coworker, coordinate, cooperation, but co-op, co-opt (to prevent misreading). If the term is not listed in section 4 of CMOS’s hyphenation guide (7.96), check Merriam-Webster.

In fractions, use a hyphen whether the compound is a noun or an adjective: two-thirds of the students or a three-fifths majority.

Do not use a hyphen in a compound with an adverb ending in ly and an adjective or participle, such as rarely seen comet or highly complex equation.

In a compound adjective in which one of the adjectives is an open compound, use an en dash instead of a hyphen: pre–Civil War or Pulitzer Prize–winning poet.

En Dashes

The principal use of en dashes, the midsize dashes, is to connect numbers and, less often, words. 

With continuing numbers — such as dates, times, and page numbers — an en dash signifies up to and including (or through).

• The years 1993–2000 were heady ones for the computer literate.

• For source citations and indexing, see chapters 13–15.

• Join us on Thursday, 11:30 a.m.–4:00 p.m., to celebrate the New Year.

For the sake of parallel construction, use the word to or through (or until) if the word from precedes the first element in such a pair; similarly, use and if between precedes the first element.

• She was in college from 2019 to 2022. (not from 2019–22)

• He usually naps between 11:30 a.m. and 1:30 p.m. (not between 11:30 a.m.–1:30 p.m.)

With directions and scores, an en dash signifies simply to: 

• The London–Paris train leaves at two o’clock.

• The legislature voted 101–13 to adopt the resolution. 

Em Dashes

Em dashes, the longest dashes, are used to set off parenthetical matter, as in this sentence:

• Many of the classes are quite small — 10 to 20 students — and students benefit from close contact with the faculty. 

An em dash can also be used to introduce a summary:

• Frequent field trips, audiovisual instruction, a mentor program with industry professionals — these are additional dimensions.

In printed materials, an em dash does not have a space before or after, but on webpages, add a space before and after.

View the keyboard commands for inserting an en dash or an em dash on either a Windows or Mac computer.

Use one space between sentences after a period or other punctuation.

Do not use periods when abbreviating academic degrees:

• MIA, MPA, PhD

When space allows, write out United States when used as a noun, and abbreviate it without periods when used as a modifier:

• The United States has 50 states.

• There are 50 US states.

Commas and periods go inside quotation marks; colons and semicolons go outside.

Question marks and exclamation points go either inside or outside, depending on the sense:

• She asked, “Why must you act so indifferent?”

• Why did he reply, “This is inconceivable”?

When a word or phrase is not used functionally but is referred to as the word or phrase itself, it is usually italicized:

• The term critical mass is more often used metaphorically than literally.

• What is meant by neurobotics?

• iPhone is spelled with a lowercase i and a capital P.

• The word Celsius derives from the name Celsius.

Quotation marks may be more appropriate in certain contexts. In the first example below, italics set off the Spanish words, and quotation marks are used for the English. In the second example, quotation marks help to convey the idea of speech.

• The Spanish verbs ser and estar are both rendered by “to be.”

• Many people say “I” even when “me” would be more correct.

Italicize non-English words and phrases used in an English-language context. 

• Well-stocked supermarkets and department stores — called dollar stores or diplotiendas — overflow with people trying to buy US goods.

• The grève du zèle is not a true strike but a nitpicking obeying of work rules.

This styling should be reserved for terms that do not appear in Merriam-Webster or that would be unfamiliar to many readers.